TOPIC: “CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO LABOUR PROBLEMS AND SOCIAL WELFARE”

 

This article is written by ADV. Kunal Yogesh Nadkarni, where he discusses about the  “CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO LABOUR PROBLEMS AND SOCIAL WELFARE”

 

CHAPTER I: ABSTRACT

Industrial Relations is a “Description of a wide area of relationships that develop as a result of the essential collaboration of men and women in the industrial employment process.” So, in order to grasp the challenges and problems associated with it, one must first understand the history of industrial relations. The challenges and issues that India is dealing with are the same problems that the rest of the world is dealing with. Industrial relations have advanced from a basic level to an industrial capitalist stage.

Work is a prominent source of self-definition. Herein, the existing legislations have failed to provide any kind of social recognition to the unorganised sector. The creation of a tripartite consultation structure, as well as a voluntary and statutory approach to industrial relations, greatly contributed to the development of a specific industrial relations system in our nation. The government/state also governs the nation’s labour relations. It advances, affects, and shapes industrial relations by way of laws, regulations, agreements, and court awards, and places emphasis on usages, practises, heritage, execution of policies and interference by way of executive and judicial machinery.

Key Words: Industrial employment process, State, Tripartite Consultation, Social recognition, Industrial relations.

 

CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION

“Unlimited exploitation of cheap labour-power is the sole foundation of their power to compete” – Karl Marx

In the modern contemporary era, it is true to hold that work is potentially losing its meaning as a symbol of profession or determining an individual’s social status. However, it is still a critical aspect of subsistence and protection of social recognition and self-esteem, wherein fresh methods of oppression and subjugation give rise to prominent labor problems.[1]

Industrial harmony and tranquility are considered a fundamental pre-requisite for development, progress and productive functioning of an undertaking in the modern economy. Reasonable governing of terms by the employer are essential to maintain cordial employment relationships. Herein, the “International Labor Organization” has played a prominent role in establishing minimum standards governing member states through legal precedents and legislations in view of the social welfare of laborers.

The term “Industrial Relations” is derived from of the spoken language “industry” and “relations”. Herein, amentaceous activity wherein an individual is concerned is widely known as industry.[2] In terms of an economic perspective , industry can be enumerated as the auxiliary facet wherein aspects of presentation (real estate, working class, undertaking and capital , or the four M's – men, materials, money, and machines) are profitably employed for the fundamental goal of production.[3] On the other hand, the term relations enumerates the relationships that exist in the industry between the management and his labor force.

Industrial Relations as enumerated by V. Agnihotri  defines the interaction between the management and the labour force that arises prominently from the union-employer relationship, Herein, the said relationship arises prominently due to the industrial enterprises employment connection.[4] The said can be enumerated as more than a two-party interaction; wherein the said are a set of practical interdependence involving diverse factors namely  historical, economic, social, psychological, demographic, technical, occupational, legal, and so on..

The research paper will fundamentally focus on a comprehensive analysis of the topic “Concept and Scope of Social Relations with Reference to Labour problems and social welfare”. The concept of Industrial Relations, along with its scope, objectives as well as the diverse rights of the labourers guaranteed by covenants and statues will be fundamentally examined. Furthermore, the recent developments and trends in the labour industry which includes employee-employer relations, dispute resolution as well as prominent precedents will be ascertained. Also, the diverse problems faced by the labour industry as well as the potential prospective recommendations and solutions for the resolution of same, in view of the social welfare of the labourers will be mentioned.

 

CHAPTER III: SCOPE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO LABOUR ISSUES

3.1 Introduction

In the case of “Bengaluru Water Supply and Sewerage Board v. A Rajappa”[5], the Hon’ble SC laid down the Triple Test Method for determination of the issue of declaration of the identify of industry pursuant to “Sec. 2(j) of the Industrial Dispute Act, 1947”. Herein., if an organization fulfils the below-mentioned aspects and is not established for a business or trade purpose, will be determined as an industry.

·         Firstly, where there is a systematic activity which is being operated on the basis of a consensus between the employees and the employer for the goal of production of goods and services.

·         Secondly, the substantial focus is on the employee-employer relationship.

·         Thirdly, in case an organization is established for a business or trade purpose, it would not cease to be an industry on the basis of its charitable basis.

·         Lastly, it is imperative to ascertain whether there is a profit gainful goal in relation to the said undertaking or not.

3.2 Rights of Labourers

Prominently, the fundamental right of an individual to the enjoyment of unprejudiced and conducive conditions of working has been emphasized and prescribed under “Art. 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights” as well as diverse other global as well as local human right treaties labor instruments, conventions as well as recommended by the “International Labor Organization”. Critical Labor Rights such as right to social security, standard for mental and physical health, basic standard of living and remuneration as well as protection from work related accidents and illness have been recognized as pre-requisites under the above-mentioned Covenant.

 3.3 Scope of Industrial Relations

Industrial relations are the interactions that occur between employees and employers on a daily basis. As a result, it is a continual relationship. The scope of industrial relations covers the following:

·         Interactions between workers, as well as between employees and their superiors or supervisors.

·         Agglomerative negotiation between labour and social control. It's referred to as union-management relations.

·         Collective bargaining between trade unions, employers' groups, and the government.

3.4 Objectives of Industrial Relations

·         Industry is delineated as a cooperative undertaking directed by governing body to ensure the proper skilfulness of workers, materials, machines, and money.

·         To facilitate industrial peace, employees must be guaranteed of fair salaries, excellent working conditions, appropriate working hours, holidays and the bare necessities of existence.[6]

·         The goals of healthy industrial relations should be industrial development and advancement, steadiness, entire well-being and felicity of employees, and highly-developed peace. Good industrial relations provide industrial peace. It is a peaceful environment with no "inquilabs," strikes, or industrial problems.[7]

·         Regional biases, provincialism, and clannishness have no place in an environment with healthy labour relations.[8] The basic purpose of industrial relations is to administer and build excellent and healthy relationships between the management and labour force.[9]

3.5  Importance of Industrial Relations

·         In the contemporary scenario, labourers are better educated and aware of their obligations and rights. The Management should serve them as individuals with human dignity and self-respect, not just as aspects of production. The purpose is to amend management and labor's traditional and conventional attitudes toward one another, to build mutual consensus and collaboration with a view to achieve an individual purpose. Amicable industrial relations result in industrial harmony and increased output.[10]

·         Employee-management collaboration opens the pathway for industrial democracy and contributes to the undertaking’s development and growth.

·         Favourable labour relations encourage workers to enhance their production. Mutual conversations, worker engagement, recommendation systems, joint meetings, and other mechanisms must be employed for resolution of issues. Good labour relations boost labour efficiency and production.

·         With greater production, management is able to provide financial and non-monetary incentives to employees.[11]

3.6  Employment as a Social relation

In contemporary culture, work is a significant source of self-definition. Many low-status jobs, on the other hand, do not provide an agreeable concept of self to the worker. Workers in these situations may attempt to regulate the link between job and identity in a way that strengthens, rather than undermines, their self-concepts. In-depth interviews with twenty-seven custodians were undertaken to investigate this process of identity management. The social relationships between caretakers and building inhabitants were discovered to be critical to this process in two ways.[12] First, customers' relationships, as well as other selected aspects of work, were accepted as a rewarding and humanising component of their employment, on which definitions of labour were built. Second, these selected meanings of work were stated, negotiated, and maintained in the framework of social connections.[13] While people of all jobs may emphasise the bright side of their work, for those in non-professional positions, this is a continual effort because there is no publicly acknowledged philosophy that enhances the image of the occupation.

CHAPTER IV: PROMINENT LABOUR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

4.1 Introduction

The existing Indian economy is defined by the presence of a substantial number of informal or unorganised labour. Herein, informal labour is prominently enumerated by the NCEUS as laborers who are engaged in small scale undertakings, self-employed engaged in traditional activities which are basically on unskilled labour and are not governed by any rules, standards or regulations. The Ministry of Labour has classified the same under 4 prominent categories: (i) Nature of employment, (ii) occupation, (iii) specially distressed and (iv) service.[14]

The following are the diverse problems faced by the labour industry:

4.2 Migrant Labourers

4.2.1 Introduction

In accordance with the Census 2011 data released on Migration, on an average, 45 crore people do not live in the state of birth. Herein, individuals move to prominent states such as Mumbai and Delhi with a view of seeking productive job and education opportunities. In terms of labourers, India has over 5.6 crore inter-state migrant labourers. The prominent factors for rural labour migration can be enumerated as, Firstly, the diverse economic and social aspects which make migration imperative for survival and secondly, to fill the gasps which have been enumerated due to certain occupations such as agriculture which are seasonal in nature.

4.2.2. Analysis

Until recently, most Indians were unaware about the “Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979”. The said act was implemented due to the inadequacy of the existing framework and with the fundamental purpose of empowering the both the States, where the labour belongs and where they labour works, to undertake legislative and administrative measures to ensure productive protection from any kind of employment. In consonance with the act, the contractors are necessitated to obtain a license and certificate of registration from the concerned authorities of both states as prescribed above.[15]  Furthermore, the above-mentioned act prescribes, reasonable accommodation, medical facilities, suitable clothing, fixation of wages, fixation of working hours, periodic inspection of the establishments where the labourers work and reside as well as other basic amenities. Also, the Government of India had introduced the “Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2019”, as an addition to the existing labour framework with the fundamental goal of strengthening labour rights.[16] However, despite the enactment of the above-mentioned legislations, the enforcement and implementation of the same has been widely unproductive, which was blatantly visible in the current global pandemic, wherein substantial hardships were witnessed by migrant labourers, which clearly enumerate the need for reconfiguration of the existing labour framework in India.

4.2.3 Prominent issues faced by migrant labourers

·         Health and Living Conditions

Taking into consideration the mere fact that migrant labourers widely work in construction sites, construction of roads, etc, the polluted and unhygienic conditions make them vulnerable to water and air pollution which can prospectively have an impact on their well-being. Despite, the “Contract Labour Act, 1970”, prescribes reasonable accommodation, the labourers often live in make shift shelters.

·         Child Labour

Prominently, children of migrant labourers are deprived of free and subsidised education facilities which have been provided by the government and therefore are forced to engage in unskilled labour. Due to the vulnerability to hazardous conditions, it not only affects their health but affects the overall development of the child.

·         Exploitation by Middle men and Contractors

Migration is largely based on the recruitment by middle men and contactors. Herein, although, the said network achieves the purpose of providing migrants with pertinent information and job opportunities. However, it can potentially lead to exploitation of the workers. Taking into consideration the mere fact that migrant workers belong to the backward section of the society and are largely uneducated, they are not aware of the diverse rights which have been guaranteed by the legislations. Herein, there is an absence of written and enforceable contracts which affect regular provisions for work and wages. [17]

CHAPTER V: THE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS SYSTEM

5.1 Labour-Management Relations in Transition:

Industrial relations have alternated suddenly as a result of the shifting corporate environment. Creating and sustaining positive labour relations has become an important aspect of organisational strategy.[18] Before industrialization, it was impossible to imagine pleasant labor-management relations. Organizations, on the other hand, realised that employee engagement was critical to their existence. Instead of exploiting employees, organisations sought worker engagement in all activities.[19]

5.2 The Transition from Exploitation to Participation:

During the early years of industrialisation, most organisations embraced an authoritarian management style. There were no established avenues of contact between management and labour. Labour was regarded as a commodity. Workers were given inadequate, hazardous working conditions and little pay. Workers were unaware of their rights, and their movements were closely tracked.[20]

5.3 Economic Environment Changes

Economic liberalisation and globalisation have had a significant influence on labour-management relations.[21]

Liberalisation of the Economy

Following the liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991, the emphasis changed from import substitution to export promotion and local competitiveness. Prior to liberalisation, trade unions in India played a significant role in preserving workers' rights using political methods like as strikes and gheraos. Some labour unions even threatened management with catastrophic repercussions if their demands were not granted.

·         Globalization

Globalisation is described as the increasing deregulation of international commerce and investment as a result of national economies’ interdependence. The majority of employees connect globalisation with job loss. They are convinced that globalisation has always had a detrimental influence on labour relations.[22]

5.4 Labour Restructuring

The government's state intervention strategy has primarily benefited labour by providing them with protection and collective bargaining. Industrial policies were created to govern the conduct of labour and capital, as well as to provide legal resolutions to industrial. conflicts.[23] The Indian government has resorted to 'soft' labour reforms in the form of the following: (i) Disinvestment rather than privatisation, (ii)  unfolding labour inspection systems, (iii) Amending labour legislation, (iv) Lowering the interest rate on the provident fund, (v) Special concessions for Special Economic Zone units (SEZs), (vi) Simplify processes for yearly returns, register maintenance and (vii) Designating units in SEZs as "public utility services" in order to make strikes more difficult.

5.5 Collective Bargaining

Collective Bargaining can be enumerated as a dispute resolution method wherein employment governed disputes are amicably, orderly and harmoniously resolved by a way of settlement between the management of the said undertaking and labour unions. In the modern contemporary scenario, the said fundamental principle and right is one of the most essential and widely employed method of amicable dispute resolution. [24]

5.6 Judicial Developments:

The following are a series of landmark judgements on prominent labour issues:

·         “M.C Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu”[25]: The Hon’ble SC rendered a series of directions for pertinent elimination of child labour, which included, identification of survey for working children, ensuring appropriate education facilities, payment of Rs, 20,000 by the violating employers to the welfare fund, regulation of working hours for children in non-hazardous industries and withdrawal of children from hazardous industries. The implementation of the said directions shall be done by the Ministry of Labour.

·         “Workmen of M/S Firestone Tyre and Rubber Co of India v, Management”[26]: The SC stated that the “Industrial Dispute Act, 1947” was an instrumental piece of legislation which is enacted for the fundamental purpose of ensuring betterment of the employees.

·         “Kesoram Rayon Workmen’s Union v. Registrar of Trade Unions”[27]: Imposition of fines on trade union leaders for arson, loss of corporate property, and so forth.

·         “Hussainbhai Calicut v. Altah Factory Thozhilali Union”[28]: The Hon’ble Court while determining the apt definition of an employer, held that essential aspects such as prolonged employment as well as economic control over workers, which includes livelihood of the employees being dependent on him, must be considered.

·         “M/S Engineers India Ltd v. Presiding Officer Labour Court”[29]: Removing the contents of service conditions and standing instructions, such as considering unlawful absences of more than a week as abandonment of work.

·         “M/S Kec International Ltd v. Kamani Employees Union”[30]: The requirement for a change notice when the Voluntary Retirement Scheme is implemented, because work formerly done by more individuals will now be required to be done by fewer persons.

·         “Ficus Pax Private Ltd v. Union of India”[31]: The Hon’ble SC rendered that workers service in an organisation cannot be terminated arbitrarily and suddenly by giving one- or three-months’ notice or compensation in lieu of notice.

·         “Syndicate Bank v. Umesh Nayak”[32]: The court rendered that a strike is considered as an ultimate resort for a workman to fulfil its demand and nor does the act deny the workman’s right to protest using amicable and harmonious machinery. Also, the court directed the employer to pay the employees their salaries during the period of strike.

CHAPTER VI: RECOMMENDATIONS

The issues, economic, non-economic controlled by service contracts / terms and conditions of employment have a significant impact on the industrial relations environment / situation. Furthermore, issues not governed by service regulations, such as behavioural and attitudinal difficulties, which have an impact on the IRs pattern.[33]

·         Promotion and Development or Healthy Labour-Management Relations: One facet of industrial relations is to foster and create good relationships between employers and employees.

Ø  Collective bargaining spirit and willingness to use voluntary arbitration. They assume equal position in the sector due to the feeling of collective bargaining. This sentiment may contribute to industrial peace.[34]

Ø  The presence of powerful, well-organized, democratic, and accountable trade unions, as well as associations or employers in the industry, which can provide employees' job security and involvement in decision-making, as well as offer labour a dignified place in society.

·         Maintenance of Industrial Peace: The absence of industrial dispute is required for industrial peace to be maintained. Such peace may be achieved only if the State has the following rights and privileges, as well as opportunities for bipartite or tripartite consultative mechanism for resolving problems, if any exist.[35]

Ø  Legislative and administrative mechanisms for the prevention and resolution of workplace conflicts should be implemented.[36]

Ø  The establishment of bipartite and tripartite dispute resolution forums is required. Various codes, model standing orders, and conflict resolution processes are required.[37]

Ø  Appropriate government must have adequate authority to refer disputes to adjudication or arbitration where it believes it is in the best interests of the business or the nation.[38]

Ø  Application Cells and evaluation committees must be formed, with the authority to investigate the execution of different agreements, settlements, and awards, as well as violations of legislative requirements under various labour laws.

·   Growth of Industrial Democracy: The concept of “industrial democracy” holds that labour must have the accurate to collaborate with administration in the operation of the enterprise.[39]

Ø  Establishment of floor and plant-level Shop Councils and Joint Management Councils to enhance working and living circumstances via mutual dialogue and understanding.

Ø  Increasing labour productivity through various means: 

                        i.            Recognizing labour not as a commodity but as a human being in the industry, allowing them a sense of self-respect and a better understanding of their role in the organisation

                        ii.            Making available the material and social environment to which the worker adjusts and adapts himself while at work.[40]

·         In terms of the Migrant Labour crisis, the existing legislations have failed to provide any form of legal or social protection, with most of them denied basic amenities. Migrant labourers are not governed by any form of civil society initiatives as the current existing legislations are focused towards formal and organised labour.  It is imperative that the central and the state government ensure adequate safeguards to protect the interest of migrant labourers as they contribute substantially to the economy of India. The following are the recommendations:

Ø  Since, in most of the cases unskilled labours are not aware of their rights, it’s imperative that an independent body such as a Migrant Facilitation Centre is constituted both at the central and state level which will ensure enforcement and implementation of the “Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979”.   

Ø  Furthermore, diverse Awareness Campaigns must be conducted at the rural levels by the state government to enlighten the labourers about the diverse rights which are guaranteed by the statues.

Ø  A comprehensive state-level mechanism must be implemented for redressal of the grievances of the informal labourers. The State level bodies must be answerable the Central Authority which must be constituted under the Ministry of Labour. For the purpose of the same, Legal Clinics must be implemented to ensure adequate counselling, literary as well as case registration services.[41]

Ø  Social Security Schemes must be implemented for migrant labours in pursuance of the “Social Security Act, 2008”.

Ø  Access to essential services, such as basic health and banking services, free or subsidised educational facilitates for children of labourers must be ensured.

CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION

The concept of industrial relations necessitates an interdisciplinary approach which is prominently referred to the interactions and relationships that exist between management and employees as a result of their collective attitudes and methods. Herein, the concept of social relations plays a prominent role as industrial harmony and consensus between the management and the labourers is supremely important for the productive and efficient functioning of an undertaking in the modern economy. Hence, as stated in the recommendations, promotion of healthy labour-management relations by the way of involving labourers in the decision making, effective and suitable mechanism for amicable resolution of disputes as well as periodic improvement of the working conditions, are a series of social factors which will play a prominent role in increasing the productivity of functioning.

The International Labour Organisation, ICESCR (Art.7) as well as the Constitution of India (Art. 39A), have played a prominent role in recognition and enforcement of standards, diverse rights and basic amenities of labourers in view of reasonable and conducive conditions of working. However, despite the national and universal recognition of labour rights, the enforcement and implementation of the same has been unproductive, prominently due to the lack of awareness among the labourers. Herein, as stated in the recommendations, implementation of amenities such as Migrant Facilitation Centre, State level awareness campaigns, Legal clinics as well as Social Security Schemes for migrant workers will play a critical role in providing them the much - deserved social recognition in the civil society, taking into consideration the fact that they contribute substantially to the economic development of the nation at large.  

Author- Adv. Kunal Yogesh Nadkarni,

High Court of Bombay. 

END NOTES  

[1] Elisio Estanque, Labour, Social Inequalities and Trade Unionism, 7 RCCS Annual Review, (2009).

[2] Zeitlin, Jonathan. “From Labour History to the History of Industrial Relations.” The Economic History Review 40, no. 2 (1987): 159–84. https://doi.org/10.2307/2596686.

[3] Kannappan, Subbiah. 5(3) Labour Force Commitment in Early Stages of Industrialisation., Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (1969): 290–349. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27760903.

[4] International Labour Office Central and Eastern European Team. Emergence of Industrial Relations. In The Ukrainian Challenge: Reforming Labour Market and Social Policy, Central European University Press, 160–200 (1995). https://doi.org/10.7829/j.ctv280b7km.8.

[5] Bengaluru Water Supply and Sewerage Board v. A Rajappa, 1978 S.C.R. 3 207.

[6] Law, Alex, and Gerry Mooney, “Beyond New Labour: Work and Resistance in the ‘New’ Welfare State:  In New Labour/Hard Labour: Restructuring and Resistance inside the Welfare Industry”, 1st. Bristol University Press, 263–86, (2007). https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t89h0z.17.

[7] Hürtgen, Stefanie. UNEVEN DESPOTIZATION: LABOUR REGIMES IN GLOCAL PRODUCTION:  In Labour Regimes and Global Production, Agenda Publishing, 155–72, (2022). https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2b6z898.13.

[8] King, Desmond S, The State and the Social Structures of Welfare in Advanced Industrial Democracies. 16(8) Journal of Theory and Society (1987): 841–68. http://www.jstor.org/stable/657540.

[9] Davies, Paul, and Mark Freedland, LABOUR MARKETS, WELFARE, AND THE PERSONAL SCOPE OF EMPLOYMENT LAW, 16(1) Oxford Review of Economic Policy (2000): 84–94. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23606548.

[10] Index of Periodical Articles on Industrial Relations in India, 11(1) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (1975): 121–31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27765519.

[11] Sen, Ratna., Multinationals & Industrial Relations in India, 46(3) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (2011): 367–83. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41149456.

[12] Johri, C. K. “Industrialism and Industrial Relations in India: The Task Ahead, 25(3) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (1990): 230–42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27767100.

[13] Shyam Sundar, K.R. Institutional Framework of Industrial Relations in India: Still & Muddy Waters, 50(2) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (2014): 195–203. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24549115.

[14]  A Muthusamy & Syed Ibrahim, Problems faced by Informal Workers in Different Sectors in India, 6(4) Indian Journal of Applied Research, pp. 37-40, (April, 2016).

[15] A Muthusamy & Syed Ibrahim, Problems faced by Informal Workers in Different Sectors in India, 6(4) Indian Journal of Applied Research, pp. 37-40, (April, 2016).

[16] Satvik Varma, Why India’s Legal and Labour System needs to be Reconfigured, The Wire, ed. (May 19, 2020). https://thewire.in/labour/india-labour-legal-system-migrant-workers

[17] C. Annie Jane, A study on the Internal Migrant Labour Issues and Policies, 6(4) Indian Journal of Applied Research, pp. 81-83, (April 2016).

[18] Jackson, Dudley. Wage Policy and Industrial Relations in India, 82 The Economic Journal (1972): 183–94. https://doi.org/10.2307/2230214.

[19] Lansbury, Russell D, Varieties of Transformation in Industrial Relations: An International Perspective. 69(5) ILR Review 2016): 1288–94. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26753701.

[20] Goldstein, Andrea. Multinational Companies from Emerging Economies Composition, Conceptualization & Direction in the Global Economy, 45(1) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (2009): 137–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27768260.

[21] Chris, OBISI, The Changing Role of State in Industrial Relations & Social Protection., 52(4) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations 2017): 558–69. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26536418.

[22] Handy, L. J., and T. S. Papola., Wage Policy and Industrial Relations in India: A Reappraisal., 84 The Economic Journal (1974): 172–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2230494.

[23] Index of Periodical Articles on Industrial Relations in India., 3(3) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (1968): 344–55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27760774.

[24] Nikhil Bhatia, A Look at Collective Bargaining and its Impact on Labour Law Legislation, SSRN Journal, (October 25, 2019). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3558743

[25] M.C Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu, Civil Writ Petition No. 465 of 1986.

[26] Workmen of M/S Firestone Tyre and Rubber Co of India v, Management, A.I.R. 1973 SC 1227.

[27] Kesoram Rayon Workmen’s Union v. Registrar of Trade Unions, A.I.R. 1967 Cal 507.

[28] Hussainbhai Calicut v. Altah Factory Thozhilali Union, 1978 S.C.R. 3 1073.

[29] M/S Engineers India Ltd v. Presiding Officer Labour Court, Civil Writ Petition No. 17858 of 2014.

[30] M/S Kec International Ltd v. Kamani Employees Union, 1998 3 BomCR 590.

[31] Ficus Pax Private Ltd v. Union of India, Civil Writ Petition No. 500 of 2020.

[32] Syndicate Bank v. Umesh Nayak, 1994 S.C.C. 5 572.

[33] Index of Periodical Articles on Industrial Relations in India. 3(3) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations 3 (1968): 344–55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27760774.

[34] Sodhi, J. S., Emerging Trends in Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management in Indian Industry, 30(1) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (1994): 19–37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27767337.

[35] Mahmood, Zaad., Trade Unions, Politics & Reform in India, 51(4) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (2016): 531–49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43974580.

[36] Nath, Surendra, Developing New Perspective on Industrial Relations: Role of Government., 31(2) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (1995): 178–92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27767408.

[37] Sen, Ratna. “Industrial Relations: Patterns and Trends.” Indian Journal of Industrial Relations 32, no. 3 (1997): 354–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27767484.

 

[39] Kannappan, Subbiah. The Tata Steel Strike: Some Dilemmas of Industrial Relations in a Developing Economy, 67(5) Journal of Political Economy, (1959): 489–507. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1826747.

[40] Dhyani, S. N., Strike: A Study in State Controls and Adjustment of Industrial Relations in India, 1(1) Indian Journal of Industrial Relations (1965): 100–116. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27760579.

[41] Rajiv Khandelwal & Divya Verma, Creative Practises and Policies for better inclusion of migrant workers, https://www.aajeevika.org/assets/pdfs/Creative%20Practices%20and%20Policies%20Paper_Final.pdf